Stages of a Disaster Risk Assessment Process

 In the context of this portal, the goal of a disaster assessment process is to provide objective and transparent information for making decisions on countermeasures to reduce disaster risk.

The stages of a disaster assessment, as suggested in part by the ISDR publication: Living with Risk:  A global review of disaster reduction initiatives, are the following (shown in the order in which they are normally conducted).

• Hazard identification to identify the nature, location, intensity and likelihood (probability or frequency) of a threat
• Vulnerability analysis to determine the existence and degree of vulnerabilities and exposure to a threat(s)
• Capacity analysis to identify the capacities and resources available to reduce the level of risk, or the effects of a disaster
• Risk analysis to determine levels of risk
• Risk evaluation to make decisions about which risks need countermeasures and priorities

Risk communication means the imparting and exchanging of information about the existence, nature, form, likelihood, severity, acceptability, treatment or other aspects of risk.  Risk communication is important at each stage of the disaster assessment process.
 

Challenges for disaster assessment

There are a number of challenges for effective disaster assessment.  They include, but are not limited to those shown below.  Users are encouraged to look for ways and means to overcome the challenges when selecting and applying tools and case studies.

• Disaster assessment should reflect local knowledge and culture.  The importance of this approach should not be underestimated.
• Disaster assessment should be part of a comprehensive disaster risk reduction programmer, for example a programmed based on the Total Disaster Risk Management (TDRM) approach.  The TDRM approach involves identifying, analyzing and managing disaster risks by the following: -
• Establishing the disaster risk context
• Identifying the disaster risks
• Analyzing the disaster risks
• Assessing and prioritizing the disaster risks
• Treating the disaster risks
• Monitoring, reviewing and communicating
• Multi-hazard risk assessments are difficult to accomplish due to the different approaches in assessing individual hazards.  But multi-hazard risk assessments are important to properly feed into disaster risk reduction strategies.  Hazards should not be considered in isolation.
   
• Often there is a huge gap in the understanding and application of assessment tools between the technical or academic institutions undertaking these tasks and the local authorities and communities involved in the exercise.  Serious risk communication efforts are essential.
• The distinction between risk assessment and risk perception is important.  Risk perception may be considered in an assessment process, but it should not dominate the process.  Decision-makers require relatively objective information for impartial decision making.
   
• Each stage of the risk management process should be recorded appropriately.  Assumptions, methods, data sources, analyses, results and reasons for decisions should all be recorded.  The records of such processes are an important aspect of good governance.
   
• Disaster assessment is not usually visible and not a priority for decision makers.  The reality is that disasters influence the goals, objectives and policies of decision makers.  Generally, but not consistently, the influence is negative.  Therefore, decision makers should be involved in and informed on the disaster assessment process and its results.
   
• While hazard mapping has been improved by the wider use of geographic information system (GIS) techniques, the inclusion of social, economic and environmental variables into GIS models remains a major challenge

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EDUCATION STRUCTURE IN TANZANIA.

The Tanzanian system of education is closely aligned with the European system. Instruction can be divided into four sub-categories:

Pre-primary spans 2 years. The typical age of a pre-primary student is 5-6. As pre-primary is not compulsory, it most closely aligns with the American concept of preschool.

Primary spans 7 years. This level of education is compulsory. The default language of instruction is Kiswahili. The typical age of a primary student is 7-13. Individual years of primary education are called Standards. Standards are classified by Roman numerals, ranging from Standard I to Standard VII. Any child that reaches the age of 7 is required to enroll in primary school. Primary education is technically free of charge, but most schools implement fees for uniforms, testing materials, and supplies.

There are two national exams that fall within this period: one between Standard IV and Standard V, and one upon completion of Standard VII. Passage of the first is not required for advancement. Passage of the second is required to receive a primary certificate and advance to public Ordinary Level (secondary school). If a student fails, a private O-Level school is their only option.

Ordinary Level spans 4 years. O-Level is not compulsory and students are required to pay school fees. The default language of instruction is English. The typical age of an O-Level student is 14-17. Individual years of O-Level education are called Forms. Like Standards, Forms are classified by Roman numerals, ranging from Form I to Form IV.

There are two national exams that fall in this period: one between Form II and Form III, and one upon completion of Form IV. Passage of the first is required for advancement, though students who do not pass may retake Form II. Passage of the second is required to receive a Certificate of Secondary Education Examination, in addition to an academic certificate from the National Examination Council of Tanzania (NECTA). A student must pass this exam to advance to Advanced Level (high school).

Advanced Level spans 2 years. A-Level students must have passed their Form IV examinations. The default language of instruction is English. The typical age of an A-Level student is 18 and up. Like O-Level, individual years of A-Level education are called Forms. A-Level is Form V and Form VI.

There is one examination upon completion of Form VI. It is called the Advanced Certificate of Secondary Education Examination. A student must pass this exam to receive a diploma and be eligible for advancement into a public university.

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CLASSICAL CONDITIONING.

Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning was first systematically studied by the Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov, beginning around the turn of the 20th century. Pavlov initially was interested in determining what role the nervous system plays in digestion, and won the Nobel Prize in Medicine or Physiology for this work in 1904. In the course of this research, Pavlov decided to systematically explore a phenomenon that had been noticed in passing by others -- that dogs who were becoming accustomed to being fed during certain laboratory tests began to salivate when merely exposed to stimuli that immediately preceded the offering of the food. To Pavlov, this was exciting stuff, as it suggested that new reflexes could be formed in the dog's nervous system as a result of its experiences. Believing that these nervous-system changes were taking place in the dog's cerebral cortex, Pavlov saw that a thorough study of the conditions under which such reflexes are formed, modified, inhibited, and so on might provide a magnificent new window on the operation of the cerebral cortex, the highest level of the brain. He was to spend the rest of his long career investigating this phenomenon of acquired reflexes.

Pavlov's experiments with dogs made use of a minor surgical procedure in which the end of one of the dog's six salivary ducts was loosened from its attachment to the inner surface of the cheek. A small hole was made through the cheek and the end of the duct, together with the surrounding mucus membrane, was pulled through the hole, sutured to the exterior surface, and allowed to heal. Now when the dog salivated, the output of this duct was conducted to the outside surface of the dog's cheek, where it could be easily collected by temporarily cementing a small ring over the duct opening. From the ring a length of surgical tubing led to an apparatus that permitted the drops of saliva to be accurately counted.

Basic Elements of Classical Conditioning

• The Unconditioned Stimulus (US) -- This is a stimulus that reflexively elicits a response. In Pavlov's experiments the US typically was meat powder.

The Unconditioned Response (UR) -- This is the response to the unconditioned stimulus that the experimenter measures. In Pavlov's experiments the UR was salivation.
The Neutral Stimulus -- This is a stimulus that initially does not elicit the response to be conditioned, in this example, salivation. It is important to note, however, that the initial presentations of the neutral stimulus do produce other responses that Pavlov collectively referred to as the investigatory reflex, or the "what is it?" reflex. The dog would turn toward the source of the stimulus, sniff at it, and so on, as if to determine what it was, and whether it needed to be paid any further attention. The modern term for this behavior is the orienting response.

• The Conditioned Stimulus (CS) -- This is the neutral stimulus after it has acquired the ability, through conditioning, to elicit a response. For simplicity, it is common to refer to this stimulus as "the CS" even while it is still technically a neutral stimulus.

The Conditioned Response (CR) -- This is the response conditioned to the CS. In Pavlov's experiment, the CR was salivation.
Basic Procedure for Demonstrating Classical Conditioning

1. Pair the CS and US together. Usually, this means presenting the CS first and then presenting the US, with the CS continuing to be present until the US occurs. The interval between the start of the CS and the start of the US called the CS-US interval, or alternatively, the inter stimulus interval or ISI. In salivary conditioning, the CS-US interval the works best is on the order of 5 to 10 seconds.

1. Repeat this pairing across a number of trials. The interval of time between trials is called the inter trial interval or ITI. In salivary conditioning it is on the order of 40 seconds to a minute.

1. Test for conditioning by presenting the CS alone (omit the US). Any salivation to the CS alone must be a conditioned response.

To demonstrate classical conditioning, you need at least two types of stimulus and an appropriate procedure for pairing the stimuli. Here are some terms describing the basic elements:

• Pavlov distinguished two kinds of unconditioned salivary reflex: the alimentary reflex to food, and the defensive reflex to weak acids and other tissue irritants. Alimentary salivation tends to be thick with mucus, giving it a lubricating quality that facilitate the mastication and swallowing of food. Defensive salivation tends to be thin and copius, helping to dilute the irritant and wash it out of the mouth.
• Pavlov used a variety of stimuli as neutral stimuli in his research, including an electric light, buzzer, spinning disk, and the ticking of a metronome. In this example we'll use a bell.

• Note that salivation was the response to both the US and the CS. Please keep in mind that the two responses can be (and often are) different. For example, the unconditioned response to a shock US delivered through the floor is running, whereas the conditioned response may be freezing (immobility)

MITIGATION FACTORS ON DISASTER.

The Disaster Cycle

It is important to understand where mitigation fits in the disaster cycle and the challenges

the concept has faced in the past. The emergency management profession and FEMA

have used the concept of the disaster cycle to describe the phases of a

disaster.

The four phases, Response, Recovery, Preparedness, and Mitigation can be described as

Follows:

− Response begins as soon as a disaster event occurs. Response is the provision of

Search and rescue, medical services, and access control as well as repairing and

restoring communication and data systems during a crisis. A coordinated response

plan can help reduce casualties, damage, and decrease recovery time. Examples

include emergency operations plans and business continuity plans and established

networks of first responders.

− Recovery operations provide for basic needs and restore the community. There are

two components in the recovery phase. During the first phase, infrastructure is

examined, and repairs are conducted to restore water, power, communication and

other utilities. The second phase includes returning to normal functions and

addressing future disasters. The process of recovery can take months or possibility

years to accomplish depending upon the event. An example would be the

development of a post-disaster recovery plan.

− Preparedness refers to activities, programs, and systems developed in advance of

a disaster designed to build and enhance capabilities at an individual and business.

community, state and federal level to support the response to and recovery from

disasters. Example strategies might include developing awareness and outreach

campaigns and training targeted to individuals and businesses on personal and

professional responsibility to be self sufficient for at least 72 hours post-disaster.

− Mitigation or Risk Reduction Is the act of reducing or eliminating future loss of

life and/or property, and/or injuries resulting from hazards through short and longterm

activities. Mitigation strategies may range in scope and size; however, no

matter the size, effective mitigation activities have the potential to reduce the

vulnerability and/or exposure to risk and impact of disasters. Example mitigation

activities for flooding include acquiring, elevating, or relocating structures; for

seismic include building code, retrofitting buildings or infrastructure and non structurally

retrofitting labs and offices; and for wind or winter storms include

under grounding power lines and tree replacement programs.

HISTORY OF GIS

A GIS (geographic or geospatial information system) is a modern extension of traditional cartography with one fundamental similarity and two essential differences.  The similarity lies in the fact that both a cartographic document and a GIS contain examples of a base map to which additional data can be added.  The differences are that there is no limit to the amount of additional data that can be added to a GIS map and secondly the GIS uses analysis and statistics to present data in support of particular arguments which a cartographic map cannot do.  Cartographic maps are often extremely simplified as there are limits to the amount of data that can be physically and meaningfully stored on a small map.

Fore More click the link.http://geomatica.como.polimi.it/corsi//geo_info_system/history_of_GIS.pdf

SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION.

We all have studied sociology little bit in bachelor programme in Education.Here we will refresh our knowledge. The word Sociology originates from latin prefix :socius, "companion"; and the suffix -ology, "the study of", from Greek lógos, "knowledge" .

Sociology is the systematic study of society.Sociology encompasses all the elements of society ie social relation, social stratification, social interaction, culture .Scope of sociology is wide and it ranges from the analysis of interaction of two anonymous persons to the global social interaction in global institution. like UNESCO UN etc.

Sociology can perhaps be best regarded as an attempt to name that which secretely keeps society going ( Whitty and Young,1976). FOR MORE CLICK DOWN.

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GIS Analysis Functions.

GIS analysis functions use the spatial and non-spatial attribute data to answer questions about real-world. It is the spatial analysis functions that distinguish GIS from other information systems.

When use GIS to address real-world problems, you'll come up against the question that which analysis function you want to use and to solve the problems. In this case, you should be aware that wisely using functions will lead to high quality of the information produced from GIS and individual analysis functions must be used in the context of a complete analysis strategy. (Stan Aronoff, 1989)

1. Spatial Data Functions

Spatial data refers to information about the location and shape of, and relationships among, geographic features, usually stored as coordinates and topology. Spatial data functions are used to transform spatial data files, such as digitized map, edit them, and assess their accuracy. They are mainly concerned with the spatial data.

Format Transformations

Format is the pattern into which data are systematically arranged for use on a computer. Format transformations are used to get data into acceptable GIS format. Digital Files must be transformed into the data format used by the GIS, such as transforming from raster to vector data structure. A raster data often requires no re-formatting. A vector data often requires topology to be built from coordinate data, such as arc/node translations. Transformation can be very costly and time-consuming with.................!

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POPULATION DISPLACEMENT.

A sudden impact such as a natural disaster or conflict triggers the displacement of populations. We supply immediate short-term relief by providing safe water and basic sanitation; emergency medical care A sudden impact such as a natural disaster or conflict triggers the displacement of populations.

We supply immediate short-term relief by providing safe water and basic sanitation; emergency medical care and basic health services; temporary shelter; distribution of food and other urgently needed items.

Definition and characteristics

Displaced populations leave their homes in groups, usually due to a sudden impact, such as an earthquake or a flood, threat or conflict. There is usually an intention to return home.

Migration and displacement are interlinked, but must be distinguished. Displaced populations – either across borders such as refugee influxes, or within a country because of disasters or armed conflict – usually need relief operations combined with efforts aiming at collective and lasting solutions. Migration on the other hand usually involves more individual social assistance, legal protection and personal support. 

For more click t below.

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WHO IS AN ADULT........................?

Aduilt is a Person who has reached the legal age of majority.

How can one classify a true adult?  Many people directly attribute age to adulthood.  The problem with this methodology becomes evident when you discuss the topic with various people of different cultural backgrounds.  If you ask each of them what age they believe constitutes the point at which a person progresses from childhood into adulthood, their answers will always be different.  Why?  Because every one of the answers are based on subjective opinion.  Adulthood is not based on age; it’s based strictly on emotional maturity.

So what constitutes emotional maturity, and thus adulthood?  Here are 20 defining characteristics of a true adult:

1.    Realizing that maturity is an ongoing process, not a state, and continuously striving for self improvement.

2.    Able to manage personal jealousy and feelings of envy.

3.    Has the ability to listen to and evaluate the viewpoints of others.

4.    Maintains patience and flexibility on a daily basis.

5.    Accepts the fact that you can’t always win, and learns from mistakes instead of whining about the outcome.

6.    Does not overanalyze negative points, but instead looks for the positive points in the subject being analyzed.

7.    Is able to differentiate between rational decision making and emotional impulse.

8.    Understands that no skill or talent can overshadow the act of preparation.

9.    Capable of managing temper and anger.

10.Keeps other people’s feeling in mind and limits selfishness.

11.Being able to distinguish between ‘needs’ and ‘wants’.

12.Shows confidence without being overly arrogant.

13.Handles pressure with self composure.

14.Takes ownership and responsibility of personal actions.

15.Manages personal fears.

16.Able to see the various shades of grey between the extremes of black and white in every situation.

17.Accepts negative feedback as a tool for self improvement.

18.Aware of personal insecurities and self-esteem.

19.Able to separate true love from transitory infatuation.

20.Understanding that open communication is the key to progression.

Above all, true adults do what they have to do when it is required of them, and they do what they want when they can.  They are able to distinguish between the two and manage their time and efforts accordingly.

for more information visit:http://www.marcandangel.com/2007/08/17/what-is-adulthood-20-defining-characteristics-of-a-true-adult/